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Sara Hall training:Changing Speeds to Go the Distance
FASTER, HIGHER, STRONGER
Changing Speeds to Go the Distance
By GRETCHEN REYNOLDS
Published: April 17, 2008
SARA HALL experienced an instructive epiphany in 2006. In the fall, she’d won the national road-running championship for 5K (3.1 miles), a distance she specialized in at Stanford. At the time, she considered herself a 5K runner. So did everyone else.
Axel Koester for The New York Times
Sara Hall, an aspiring Olympian runner, trains at UC Riverside by running speed drills around the lap.
This article is the second in a series that began with “A Swimmer’s Different Strokes for Success” (March 20).
Axel Koester for The New York Times
Hall takes an ice bath after her daily exercise regimen to help with muscle recovery between training sessions.
A few weeks later, everything changed when she won the Fifth Avenue Mile in New York, a glamour event in American road racing. “Afterward, I thought, ‘That’s my distance,’ ” she said. “It plays to my strengths. I loved the fast pace. I’m not a patient runner.”
Today, Hall, 25, is laser-focused on training for the 1,500 meters (0.93 mile) in hopes of making the United States Olympic team in middle distance running.
She and her coach, Terrence Mahon, who also coaches Hall’s husband, Ryan Hall, the winner of the United States Olympic team men’s marathon trial, have increased her speed work and reconfigured how much she’s running and her intensity.
“Her work capacity has gone through the roof,” Mahon said, and she can run greater distances faster than ever before. Which makes her current regimen a good model for how recreational runners — not just the elite — can get swifter and sharper, and perhaps even decide that they have been racing the wrong distance all along.
SPEED THRILLS
“I’m not running as far these days,” Hall said, compared with the distances she ran in high school and college. That might come as a surprise to anyone who learns that her average weekly mileage remains 85 to 90 (compared with her husband’s 140-plus). A typical training week includes easy running on Monday, Wednesday, Friday and Sunday (usually twice a day). Hall, who can run almost a four-minute mile, lopes through these 30- or 50-minute workouts at a leisurely mile pace of 7 minutes. (To accurately figure her mile splits, she wears a watch equipped with G.P.S.) On Saturday, she takes a 14-mile run at a pace (5 minutes 45 seconds per mile) that is between what she runs in races and her easy days.
Then there are the fast, hard interval sessions at a track on Tuesdays and Thursdays. These hurt because they are supposed to. “You stress the body to get it to adapt” to the mechanical and physiological demands of speed, Mahon said. A typical Tuesday session includes two miles of warm-up, six miles of intervals and three miles of cool-down.
Anyone not aiming for an Olympic qualifying time should adjust speed-training mileage downward, Mahon said. “Go to a track and run a mile flat-out” and record your time, he said. Your ideal pace for a 5K race would be around 95 percent as fast per mile. Then implement what Mahon calls “over-speed and under-speed training.” In over-speed, you sprint through quarter-miles, 800 meters and other intervals at a speed faster than your 5K pace (close to your top mile time). Don’t run more than two fast miles.
For under-speed work, time your interval splits to be a little slower than your 5K pace, with shorter rest periods than those within the over-speed intervals. Total mileage can be four to six miles. Cool down with a gentle jog of about half your total interval distance.
Try sprinting one week, and running slower the next or, if you’re an experienced racer, both in separate sessions in a week. Don’t, despite its discomforts, worm out of speed work. “The most common mistake” that recreational runners make, Mahon said, “is running the same pace all the time.” Occasionally making yourself run fast, he said, “is the only way to make yourself a fast runner.”
STRIDE RIGHT
Hall kicks like a mule when she runs. She’s trying to stop. “This year, we’ve been totally focused on my form,” she said. “I tend to lean forward and I have a big back kick.” This slightly toppling stance lessens the power of her strides, and also has made her prone to being tripped up from behind during races.Although some runners and coaches are loathe to fiddle with a runner’s stride, Mahon isn’t one of them. “Proper running form will lessen the chance of injuries and further the longevity of an athlete’s career,” he said. “It will improve running economy and allow the runner to run faster with less fuel expended.”
To help with form, “those of us in the elite-distance running community have started looking at what sprinters do,” Mahon said.
Ideally, he said, “You want a straight, perpendicular line between the ground and your ankle and knee.” So, for up to two hours a day, several times a week, Hall has been practicing various drills, which as she said, are designed to teach her to “keep your feet right underneath you.”
During each exercise, she said, she tried to land more toward her heels than her toes. This is known as “dorsiflexion” of the ankle, or a slight upward tilting of the foot. Mahon said this is the ideal foot-strike position. Landing flat-footed or near your heel, he said, “allows for the arch to work as a spring.” It also “allows for the ankle joint to disperse shock up to the knee and hip and lessen the total blow on a single joint.”
The drills seem to be working for Hall, who demonstrated some of her favorites on a recent Thursday while training at the University of California, Riverside, with her husband. “People have told me I look more upright,” she said. She hasn’t tangled legs with another racer for months. And, she said, her feet don’t hurt like they once did.
LOAD UP ON ICE
“You can’t keep up with a heavy workload” of running if you don’t recover between sessions, Mahon said. Hall schedules a weekly sports massage and, after hard interval sessions, settles herself into an ice bath (a tub filled with ice-cube-laced water at the sports medicine department at U.C. Riverside, where she trains) for 15 minutes.
This immersion is widely believed to help reduce the swelling and soreness that can follow intense workouts. Ice baths after intervals “feel really good,” she said. The scientific evidence is more equivocal.
A study published last month in the European Journal of Applied Physiology showed that cold-water immersion did hasten muscle recovery and also reduced swelling in men assigned to complete repeated leg press exercises. Other studies haven’t shown similar benefits from ice baths.
But Mahon, at least, believes ice baths are helpful in reducing swelling and soreness in his athletes, allowing them to return for another interval session within only a day or two. (Most sports medicine doctors suggest waiting until any significant muscle soreness is gone before repeating a hard workout.)
TRY IT, YOU MIGHT LIKE IT
“It can be hard for an average runner to know what his real genetic potential is,” Mahon said. “Many runners pick a distance and stick with it.” The dedicated, mediocre marathoner may never discover that nature had intended him to win his age group at 5Ks.
“You have to run different distances,” Hall said. “Experiment. If I hadn’t run that Fifth Avenue Mile, I wouldn’t be doing the 1,500 now.”
More systematically, Mahon says, track your performance during intervals. “Are you excelling in the workouts that highlight intensity or those that highlight endurance?” he said. “We saw that Sara was topping the charts in intensity.” She was clearly meant, he said, to be going hard, fast, and relatively short.
Destiny, of course, can be tweaked. Hall doesn’t expect to contest the 1,500 for the rest of her career. “The speed work that I’m doing now for the 1,500 will translate beautifully” to the 5K, she said, should she decide to run that distance at the 2008 United States Olympic Trials or at future Olympics.
Then there’s the marathon, which has an ineluctable pull. “Ryan makes the training look so fun,” she said almost wistfully. But for now, “I haven’t reached my potential in the 1,500. There’s still lots of speed to explore.”
Wednesday, October 06, 2010
Tuesday, October 05, 2010
Monday, October 04, 2010
Saturday, October 02, 2010
Saturday, September 25, 2010
Sunday, August 29, 2010
Friday, August 27, 2010
Monday, July 26, 2010
Sunday, July 25, 2010
Swimming Science: Blood-Flow Resistance Training
Swimming Science: Blood-Flow Resistance Training: "Exercise physiology is poorly understood not just by laymen, but exercise physiologist alike. New techniques of training, rehabilitation..."
Monday, July 12, 2010
Evidence that a central governor regulates exercise performance during acute hypoxia and hyperoxia -- Noakes et al. 204 (18): 3225 -- Journal of Experimental Biology
Evidence that a central governor regulates exercise performance during acute hypoxia and hyperoxia -- Noakes et al. 204 (18): 3225 -- Journal of Experimental Biology: "Evidence that a central governor regulates exercise performance during acute hypoxia and hyperoxia"
Sunday, June 20, 2010
How to eat 3000 calories and not actually be starving yourself
How to eat 3000 calories without starving
I don't know about you but every now and then I need a plateau busting routine to shake my body into a greater rate of fat loss. It's not that I recommend that anyone, especially women, attempt to lose more than one pound per week of body weight, but rather, that I believe it to be imperitive that everyone seeking to lose fat, especially women, engage in vigorous weight training at least twice per week.
Why?
Because weight training causes the release of Growth Hormone which is necessary, in combination with testosterone, to promote the burning of bodyfat. But only the most obese should seek to lose more than one pound of fat per week and that under their physican's guidance.
Have you seen the cosmetic surgery shows on the Discovery Health Channel? If you have, then you no doubt have seen what people look like who have lost 100 lbs or more in a period of less than 2 years without engaging in vigorous weight training. They look hideous, draped as they are in huge flaps of loose skin that can only be removed via surgery. And the surgery! Just the recovery from it is so painful that the patients often get addicted to painkillers because they must use them for so many weeks at such high dosages.
Is that what you want?
Then, read on...
Anyone who does not weight train while dieting will quickly plateau after just a few weeks and over 60% of the weight lost will be lean muscle tissue and water. The extreme loss of muscle will lower the metabolic rate (the rate at which one burns calories) and seriously reduce the potential for the - safe - loss of bodyfat in the future.
I said "safe" because the caloric intake will have to be reduced in order to break the plateau. Such a step will CERTAINLY push the dieter into a state of semi-starvation because it is impossible to get the optimal amount of nutritional support from foods purchased at the local supermarket in the United States on an intake of less than 3000 calories. Yes, you read right.
A position paper by the American Dietetic Association says the following about non-dieting American women:
"A high proportion of young United States women (20 to 50 years of age) are under consuming a variety of nutrients as seen in the latest results of the Third National Health Examination Survey (16). Irrespective of ethnic origin, 75% of women do not meet current Adequate Intakes for calcium, and 90% of women have inadequate intakes of folate and vitamin E from food sources alone. Overall, United States women are not meeting their nutritional needs through their typical diets (16)...
"Chronic over consumption of foods high in energy and low in nutrients may result in marginal nutrient intakes if substituted for nutrient dense foods or in obesity, if consumed in addition to the basal diet (21). In the United States, more than 31% of daily energy is composed of foods that are energy dense and nutrient poor (22). This pattern of eating may contribute to excessive intakes of sugar, salt, and fat (22)..
"Although women's diets may contain excess energy, studies show marginal intakes of calcium, iron, vitamin D, and folic acid. For example, in the Nurse's Health Study, data indicate that women who consume more than 12.5 µg of vitamin D daily from foods and supplements had a 37% lower risk of hip fracture, yet only 41% of women met these levels (32)...
"Although food sources of nutrients should be encouraged, diet alone may not be sufficient to achieve nutritional adequacy during all times in a woman's life. Currently, 64% of United States women of childbearing age report taking some form of vitamin supplement, with cost considered to be the major barrier to nonuse (39)...
"According to Troppmann and colleagues (40), multivitamin supplements help overcome low intakes of folate, iron, and vitamin D, and calcium supplements were effective in achieving adequate calcium intakes. However, a conundrum exists in that individuals who are the most likely to use supplements are also those who consume better diets, whereas those who consume poorer diets and are most likely to benefit from supplements are less likely to use them (16)."
http://www.eatright.org/cps/rde/xchg/ada/hs.xsl/advocacy_3780_ENU_HTML.htm
Are you shocked and sadened to learn that you are literaly starving yourself even if you are not dieting?
Me too.
In future posts I will provide you with ways to bring your nutritional levels up to optimal standards. I will also provide you with weight training routines that will keep you from ever experiencing rolls of loose skin. In the mean time, you can join a gym and get put on a weight training program or you can write to me and I'll try to help you.
Please feel welcome to visit my other blog:
http://www.xanga.com/Prayercrafter
I don't know about you but every now and then I need a plateau busting routine to shake my body into a greater rate of fat loss. It's not that I recommend that anyone, especially women, attempt to lose more than one pound per week of body weight, but rather, that I believe it to be imperitive that everyone seeking to lose fat, especially women, engage in vigorous weight training at least twice per week.
Why?
Because weight training causes the release of Growth Hormone which is necessary, in combination with testosterone, to promote the burning of bodyfat. But only the most obese should seek to lose more than one pound of fat per week and that under their physican's guidance.
Have you seen the cosmetic surgery shows on the Discovery Health Channel? If you have, then you no doubt have seen what people look like who have lost 100 lbs or more in a period of less than 2 years without engaging in vigorous weight training. They look hideous, draped as they are in huge flaps of loose skin that can only be removed via surgery. And the surgery! Just the recovery from it is so painful that the patients often get addicted to painkillers because they must use them for so many weeks at such high dosages.
Is that what you want?
Then, read on...
Anyone who does not weight train while dieting will quickly plateau after just a few weeks and over 60% of the weight lost will be lean muscle tissue and water. The extreme loss of muscle will lower the metabolic rate (the rate at which one burns calories) and seriously reduce the potential for the - safe - loss of bodyfat in the future.
I said "safe" because the caloric intake will have to be reduced in order to break the plateau. Such a step will CERTAINLY push the dieter into a state of semi-starvation because it is impossible to get the optimal amount of nutritional support from foods purchased at the local supermarket in the United States on an intake of less than 3000 calories. Yes, you read right.
A position paper by the American Dietetic Association says the following about non-dieting American women:
"A high proportion of young United States women (20 to 50 years of age) are under consuming a variety of nutrients as seen in the latest results of the Third National Health Examination Survey (16). Irrespective of ethnic origin, 75% of women do not meet current Adequate Intakes for calcium, and 90% of women have inadequate intakes of folate and vitamin E from food sources alone. Overall, United States women are not meeting their nutritional needs through their typical diets (16)...
"Chronic over consumption of foods high in energy and low in nutrients may result in marginal nutrient intakes if substituted for nutrient dense foods or in obesity, if consumed in addition to the basal diet (21). In the United States, more than 31% of daily energy is composed of foods that are energy dense and nutrient poor (22). This pattern of eating may contribute to excessive intakes of sugar, salt, and fat (22)..
"Although women's diets may contain excess energy, studies show marginal intakes of calcium, iron, vitamin D, and folic acid. For example, in the Nurse's Health Study, data indicate that women who consume more than 12.5 µg of vitamin D daily from foods and supplements had a 37% lower risk of hip fracture, yet only 41% of women met these levels (32)...
"Although food sources of nutrients should be encouraged, diet alone may not be sufficient to achieve nutritional adequacy during all times in a woman's life. Currently, 64% of United States women of childbearing age report taking some form of vitamin supplement, with cost considered to be the major barrier to nonuse (39)...
"According to Troppmann and colleagues (40), multivitamin supplements help overcome low intakes of folate, iron, and vitamin D, and calcium supplements were effective in achieving adequate calcium intakes. However, a conundrum exists in that individuals who are the most likely to use supplements are also those who consume better diets, whereas those who consume poorer diets and are most likely to benefit from supplements are less likely to use them (16)."
http://www.eatright.org/cps/rde/xchg/ada/hs.xsl/advocacy_3780_ENU_HTML.htm
Are you shocked and sadened to learn that you are literaly starving yourself even if you are not dieting?
Me too.
In future posts I will provide you with ways to bring your nutritional levels up to optimal standards. I will also provide you with weight training routines that will keep you from ever experiencing rolls of loose skin. In the mean time, you can join a gym and get put on a weight training program or you can write to me and I'll try to help you.
Please feel welcome to visit my other blog:
http://www.xanga.com/Prayercrafter
Warming Up to avoid injury
Warming Up to Avoid Injury
Warming up prior to any physical activity does a number of beneficial things, but its main purpose is to prepare the body and mind for more strenuous activity. One of the ways it achieves this is by helping to increase the body’s core temperature, while also increasing the body’s muscle temperature. By increasing muscle temperature you are helping to make the muscles loose, supple and pliable.
An effective warm-up also has the effect of increasing both your heart rate and your respiratory rate. This increases blood flow, which in turn increases the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to the working muscles. All this helps to prepare the muscles, tendons and joints for more strenuous activity.
Warming up prior to any physical activity does a number of beneficial things, but its main purpose is to prepare the body and mind for more strenuous activity. One of the ways it achieves this is by helping to increase the body’s core temperature, while also increasing the body’s muscle temperature. By increasing muscle temperature you are helping to make the muscles loose, supple and pliable.
An effective warm-up also has the effect of increasing both your heart rate and your respiratory rate. This increases blood flow, which in turn increases the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to the working muscles. All this helps to prepare the muscles, tendons and joints for more strenuous activity.
Hamstring Injuries: Treatment and Stretching Exercises
Effective hamstring injury treatment and hamstring stretching exercises are vital to the overall health and condition of the hamstring muscles. These muscles are very susceptible to tears, strains and other common sporting injuries.
Those athletes particularly vulnerable are competitors involved in sports that require a high degree of speed, power and agility. Sports such as track and field (especially the sprinting events), basketball, tennis and football seem to have more than their fair share of hamstring injuries.
Let us start by having a quick look at the particular muscles that make up the hamstrings and where exactly they are located. We will then move on to some common causes of hamstring injuries and finally look at some preventative measures and treatments.
The hamstring group of muscles, located at the back of the upper leg, are actually a group of three separate muscles.
The top of these muscles are attached to the lower part of the pelvis and the bottom to the lower leg bone just below the knee joint.
The technical or anatomical names for the three hamstring muscles are semimembranosus, semitendinosus and biceps femoris.
The picture overleaf shows the muscles located at the rear of the upper right leg. (The three specific hamstring muscles can be seen on the picture by looking for the anatomical names located halfway down the right-hand side.)
Common causes
Now that we know exactly where the hamstrings are, let us look at some of the most common causes for hamstring injuries.
By far the most common cause of hamstring injuries is an imbalance between the quadriceps muscles (located at the front of the upper leg) and the hamstring muscles. The quadriceps is a very large, strong group of muscles, which help to extend the leg.
These muscles can become so strong that they overpower the hamstrings, putting a massive amount of tension on them. Combine strong quadriceps with weak hamstrings and you have a hamstring injury waiting to happen.
Other factors that contribute to hamstring injuries are a lack of flexibility and poor strength of the hamstring muscles. In addition, when the hamstrings become fatigued or tired they are more susceptible to injuries.
www.pponline.co.uk Page 1
Preventative exercises
The best preventative measures involve a consistent programme of both stretching and strengthening exercises. Increased flexibility will contribute greatly to the ability of the hamstring muscles to resist strains and injury. The following are two very effective and safe examples of hamstring stretches.
To perform the first stretch, simply kneel down on one knee and place your other leg straight out in front with your heal on the ground. Keep your back straight. Make sure your toes are pointing straight up and gently reach towards your toes with one hand. Use your other arm for balance. Hold this stretch for about 20-30 seconds and repeat at least two to three times.
To perform the second stretch, simply stand with one foot raised onto a chair, fence railing or similar support. Keep your raised leg slightly bent, with your toes on the edge of the support. Let your heal drop off the edge of the support. Keep your back straight and gently move your chest towards your raised leg. As for the first stretch, hold this stretch for about 20-30 seconds and repeat at least two to three times.
Warming up correctly before you stretch will also contribute greatly to reducing the likelihood of a hamstring injury.
Make sure you stretch only after an active warmup of jogging before or after any physical activity.
Dedicate time to your entire flexibility – this will not only help you avoid injury, it will also make you a better athlete.
Treatment
If you do happen to suffer from a hamstring injury, it is important that correct first-aid principles are applied immediately. The RICER regime explains the correct treatment for all muscle strain injuries.
RICER stands for: Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation, and then obtaining a Referral from a qualified sports doctor or physiotherapist. So, as soon as a hamstring injury occurs, rest the injured limb, apply ice to the affected area, apply a compression bandage and elevate the limb if possible.
This treatment needs to continue for at least 48-72 hours. This is the most critical time for the injured area and correct treatment now can mean the difference between an annoying injury and a recurring or permanent debilitating injury.
After the first 72 hours, obtain a referral from a qualified professional and start a comprehensive rehabilitation programme. This should include a great deal of strength and stretching exercises, as well as other rehabilitation activities such as massage and ultrasound.
Brad Walker Sports trainer and lecturer, Australia
www.pponline.co.uk Page 2
Effective hamstring injury treatment and hamstring stretching exercises are vital to the overall health and condition of the hamstring muscles. These muscles are very susceptible to tears, strains and other common sporting injuries.
Those athletes particularly vulnerable are competitors involved in sports that require a high degree of speed, power and agility. Sports such as track and field (especially the sprinting events), basketball, tennis and football seem to have more than their fair share of hamstring injuries.
Let us start by having a quick look at the particular muscles that make up the hamstrings and where exactly they are located. We will then move on to some common causes of hamstring injuries and finally look at some preventative measures and treatments.
The hamstring group of muscles, located at the back of the upper leg, are actually a group of three separate muscles.
The top of these muscles are attached to the lower part of the pelvis and the bottom to the lower leg bone just below the knee joint.
The technical or anatomical names for the three hamstring muscles are semimembranosus, semitendinosus and biceps femoris.
The picture overleaf shows the muscles located at the rear of the upper right leg. (The three specific hamstring muscles can be seen on the picture by looking for the anatomical names located halfway down the right-hand side.)
Common causes
Now that we know exactly where the hamstrings are, let us look at some of the most common causes for hamstring injuries.
By far the most common cause of hamstring injuries is an imbalance between the quadriceps muscles (located at the front of the upper leg) and the hamstring muscles. The quadriceps is a very large, strong group of muscles, which help to extend the leg.
These muscles can become so strong that they overpower the hamstrings, putting a massive amount of tension on them. Combine strong quadriceps with weak hamstrings and you have a hamstring injury waiting to happen.
Other factors that contribute to hamstring injuries are a lack of flexibility and poor strength of the hamstring muscles. In addition, when the hamstrings become fatigued or tired they are more susceptible to injuries.
www.pponline.co.uk Page 1
Preventative exercises
The best preventative measures involve a consistent programme of both stretching and strengthening exercises. Increased flexibility will contribute greatly to the ability of the hamstring muscles to resist strains and injury. The following are two very effective and safe examples of hamstring stretches.
To perform the first stretch, simply kneel down on one knee and place your other leg straight out in front with your heal on the ground. Keep your back straight. Make sure your toes are pointing straight up and gently reach towards your toes with one hand. Use your other arm for balance. Hold this stretch for about 20-30 seconds and repeat at least two to three times.
To perform the second stretch, simply stand with one foot raised onto a chair, fence railing or similar support. Keep your raised leg slightly bent, with your toes on the edge of the support. Let your heal drop off the edge of the support. Keep your back straight and gently move your chest towards your raised leg. As for the first stretch, hold this stretch for about 20-30 seconds and repeat at least two to three times.
Warming up correctly before you stretch will also contribute greatly to reducing the likelihood of a hamstring injury.
Make sure you stretch only after an active warmup of jogging before or after any physical activity.
Dedicate time to your entire flexibility – this will not only help you avoid injury, it will also make you a better athlete.
Treatment
If you do happen to suffer from a hamstring injury, it is important that correct first-aid principles are applied immediately. The RICER regime explains the correct treatment for all muscle strain injuries.
RICER stands for: Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation, and then obtaining a Referral from a qualified sports doctor or physiotherapist. So, as soon as a hamstring injury occurs, rest the injured limb, apply ice to the affected area, apply a compression bandage and elevate the limb if possible.
This treatment needs to continue for at least 48-72 hours. This is the most critical time for the injured area and correct treatment now can mean the difference between an annoying injury and a recurring or permanent debilitating injury.
After the first 72 hours, obtain a referral from a qualified professional and start a comprehensive rehabilitation programme. This should include a great deal of strength and stretching exercises, as well as other rehabilitation activities such as massage and ultrasound.
Brad Walker Sports trainer and lecturer, Australia
www.pponline.co.uk Page 2
Thursday, April 22, 2010
Wednesday, April 21, 2010
Monday, April 19, 2010
Sunday, April 18, 2010
Monday, April 12, 2010
Saturday, February 13, 2010
Wednesday, November 25, 2009
Saturday, November 21, 2009
Tuesday, November 17, 2009
Wednesday, September 23, 2009
Using power in specific sport situations
Using power in specific sport situations
It is important to select the most appropriate methods for your chosen sport, for the development and refinement of power, and to allow enough time for the training to take effect. This training phase should last 8-12 weeks – depending on competition needs.
Remember that this type of training is the ‘icing on the cake’ and that it should follow the basic preparation and strength development phases – if maximum sports performance is to accrue.
The components that need to be improved in this phase include the following:
Starting strength – the ability to exert maximal forces instantly, required by a sprinter or field sport athlete, for example.
Explosive strength – the rate at which the player develops force – a requirement of all athletes.
Reactive strength – the combination of eccentric and concentric strength can be measured in the time it takes to reverse direction from an eccentric (braking) contraction to a concentric (accelerating) contraction.
For example, rebound jumps in basketball or volleyball, or foot contacts when sprinting (this is less than 0.9 of a second at elite level). This combination of eccentric – concentric contractions is known as the stretch shortening cycle (SSC) and is the prime element of plyometric training.
What exercises are used?
The exercises used are more dynamic and specific. If the athlete only trained for maximum strength (using heavy weights) then he/she would only be capable of expressing large amounts of force and would not be able to do this quickly (they would not improve their speed of force production).
Being bulky and strong is no guarantee of sporting success (unless you happen to be a sumo wrestler!)
Developing different types of specific sports strength
Starting strength
As in the strength development phase, it is important to use multi-joint dynamic weightlifting exercises that employ triple extension of the joints (ankle, knee, hip). Relevant exercises would include: cleans, snatches, jump squats and lunges. This triple extension is key to numerous sports activities, such as running and jumping.
If the athlete has not learned the (difficult) technique of the Olympic lifts, the next best option is to use the squat and dead-lift exercises, as they are also multi-joint exercises and involve triple extension.
Plyometric exercises – these are highly specific sports power developing exercises. As noted, they develop the stretch/shortening cycle and the explosive power capabilities of muscles. Suitable exercises to improve starting power include: hopping, bounding and depth jumps.
Explosive strength:
As well as weight training, explosive strength can be developed via ballistic exercises, such as medicine ball throws and plyometrics, such as 3 bounds (exaggerated running strides) performed after an 8-10 stride run-up.
Reactive strength:
Reactive strength is trained by using fast explosive jumps, with repeated contacts. For example two-footed jumps over small hurdles, or fast repeated throws against a wall with minimal pause (ground contact).
Plyometric training tips:
It is important that contact with the ground is made, either with the balls of the feet (for vertical jumps) or flat-footed (for horizontal jumps).
Contact with the ground should be light and quick. Time spent with the feet in contact with the ground is time wasted when a player is sprinting or jumping.
How to plan the ‘getting strength to where you need it phase’:
An effective way to schedule power training is to include ballistic and/or plyometric exercises within the same training sessions as weight training. This is variously called, ‘power combination, complex or contrast training’. These work outs have been identified as being particularly useful at targeting and enhancing the power output of fast-twitch muscle fibre (this fibre type contracts 30-70 times a second and is crucial for speed and power). The weight used should be in excess of 70% of 1 repetition maximum (1RM).
This training method, although effective, is also highly intensive, and requires a reduction in the number of exercises performed, and the volume of repetitions per session. This will maintain quality and reduce injury potential, or over-training.
I tend to advocate performing a set of lifts, followed by a set of ballistic/dynamic drills or jumps – this is the ‘contrast’ methodology (the complex one would involve all the sets of one of the pairing of exercises being performed before the other ie all leg presses before the tuck jumps. I recommend a maximum of two sessions of this type of training per week.
It is extremely important to allow adequate rest between sets of lifts and drills, usually 3-5 minutes. Why so much time? The central nervous system (CNS) and energy systems, responsible for generating fast, powerful, movements, fatigue relatively quickly and require sufficient time to recover. Without this amount of recovery time, quality of movement cannot be repeated.
The key to improving explosive power is quality of movement. ‘Less is more’ is a very important proviso for coach and athlete to follow.
The use of speed training in the development of power
For the highly conditioned athlete, performing sprints over short distances is a great way to develop power at this time in the training year – in one session. Its inclusion is highly demanding and should only be used by athletes with at least a couple of years of background of strength conditioning training.
The format for such a session would be:
1) weights
2) plyometrics
3) acceleration sprints.
I would recommend no more than a 300m total volume of acceleration work (specifically of 15-30m sprints) in such a session (10 x 30m sprints, for example).
This ‘triple-whammy session’ is a short-term method for improving power and speed, but it should not become a main feature of the overall training programme. Over-using it will fatigue the athlete, risk injury and lead to diminishing sports performance.
I therefore recommend a three-week period of this type of training – performed twice per week. At the end of the three weeks, I would organise a-week-to-10-day recovery period. A further three-week cycle, followed by another short recovery period, can then be used, if necessary.
Examples of ‘Getting strength to where you need it sessions’
These work outs are based on power combination methods, and combine pairings of weight training and power drill (plyometric) exercises. These pairings work the same muscle groups, suggested reps, and sets and recoveries are provided. These work outs are tough and should only be tackled by the well conditioned.
Note: 1RM refers to one repetition maximum – the maximum amount of weight you could lift once on a particular exercise.
1) Basic level power combination session
Rest: minimal between lifts and power drills – if the athlete has some conditioning background.
Lifts 80% 1RM - 5 reps Power drills - 5 reps Circuits 2-3 Recoveries between Recoveries after each circuit - 5 min
Leg press Tuck jumps 4 min
Bench press Clap (plyo) push-ups 4 min
Squats Standing long jump 4 min
2) Medium-level power combination session
Rest: minimal between paired exercises.
Lifts all 80% 1RM - 5 reps Power drills - 5 reps Circuits 2-3 Recoveries between sets Recoveries after each circuit - 5 min
Power cleans Tuck jumps 4 min
Bench press Medicine ball chest pass against wall 4 min
Squats Depth jumps 4 min
3) Advanced power combination session
Perform sprints after completion of the circuits – see below.
Lifts all 85% 1RM - 4 reps Power drills Circuits 2 Recoveries between sets Recoveries after each circuit - 5 min
Power cleans Hurdle jumps 5 min
Bench press Medicine ball drop and push* 5 min
Split snatch Split jumps 5 min
* This exercise requires the medicine ball to be dropped from another athlete standing over the performer – who is lying on their back. They catch the ball over their chest and immediately throw it back to their partner who catches it. This exercise develops the plyometric response in the chest and arm muscles.
Allow 10-15 min recovery after the last circuit before performing sprints.
Example of sprint session:
2 x 4 x 20m from standing start with two minutes’ rest between each sprint and 10 minutes’ rest between sets.
An option – if the facilities are available – is to perform a set of weight lifts, followed by a power drill set, and then, with minimal recovery, a short sprint. This is only possible if a suitable running surface is situated immediately next to the lifting facility.
This article was taken from the Peak Performance newsletter, the number one source of sports science, training and research. Click here to access these articles as soon as they are released to maximise your performance
Sunday, August 16, 2009
Gym exercises to improve swimming performance
Swimmers need to follow a programme of exercises that replicate their actions in the water as closely as possible.
To optimise strength and power, competitive swimmers need to supplement their pool training with land training in the gym. For best effect, swimmers need to follow a programme of exercises that replicate their actions in the water as closely as possible.
Strength and conditioning experts around the world all agree that, for time spent in the gym to have a positive impact on your sports performance, you must ensure the exercises you perform - and the way you perform them - are related to your sporting movements in competition. For example, Barbell Squats involve ankle, knee and hip extensions in a vertical plane which are directly related to the mechanics of a vertical jump; thus the squat is a useful exercise for developing jump performance.
If we perform a basic analysis of the mechanics of the front crawl stroke, the main actions that produce forward propulsion through the water are:
l. the 'arm pull down' through the water, which propels the swimmer forward and
2. the 'leg kick', which alternates hip flexion and extension of the legs.
In addition, competitive swimming involves:
The 'dive start and push off turn', which involves dynamic ankle, knee and hip extension.
When designing your strength programme, you should focus mainly on exercises related to these movements. Other exercises may use the same muscles as those involved in swimming, but only exercises which use the right muscles in a related mechanical movement will provide optimum training benefit.
A limitation of land training with weights for swimming is that the type of resistance you encounter when moving in the water is different from the resistance occurring when you move a weight through the air. In the water, the faster you pull or kick the greater the resistance applied back by the water; on land, a given weight requires a constant force to move it, regardless of the speed of movement.
Hydraulic-type resistance equipment that mimics aquatic resistance is expensive and not widely available. The best compromise when using regular equipment is to try to mimic the speed and nature of the swimming stroke. To this end, you should aim to perform the strength exercises with a smooth and constant force and select weights which allow the movement to be performed at a swimming-related speed. For example, the leg-kicking motion during front crawl is quite fast, so hip flexion and extension exercises which can be performed at a good speed would be best.
The following exercises are related to the mechanics of the front crawl stroke. For each component, the relevant exercises are described and their mechanical relationship to the stroke explained.
Arm pull down exercises
1. Cable rotational front and back pulls
Front pull.
This is the mechanical equivalent to the pulling-through-the-water action in front crawl, as the hand comes diagonally across the body as it pulls down. For this exercise you need a high pulley machine with a simple handle grip.
Kneel down on one knee to the side of the machine. Take the hand nearest the pulley and grasp the handle with the hand high and slightly out to your side. Before you start the exercise make sure your back is straight, your shoulders are wide and your chin is tucked in. Pull the handle down and lower your arm across your body in a rotational movement until your hand is next to the opposite hip. Smoothly return the bar to the start position and continue, performing sets of 5-8 reps for maximum strength or 12-15 for strength endurance.
Try to keep your posture solid throughout the movement. Maintain a slight bend in the elbow as you pull, but focus your effort on the shoulder muscles only.
Rear pull.
This exercise involves the opposite movement to the front pull and is useful for promoting a balanced strength about the shoulder joint. Specifically, the front pull trains the internal rotator cuff muscles and the rear pull trains the external muscles. To avoid shoulder injuries a balanced rotator cuff strength is important. For this exercise you need a low pulley machine with the simple handle grip.
Stand to the side of the machine and grasp the handle with the opposite hand. Make sure your back is straight, your shoulders wide and your chin tucked in. Start with your hand by the inside hip and fix a slight bend in the elbow. Pull the handle up and away from your body, rotating the arm up and out. Finish with the handle high and out to the side, with the palm of the hand facing forwards. Smoothly return the handle back and across to the opposite hip and continue. Again go for sets of 5-8 reps for maximum strength or 12-15 for strength endurance.
Keeping your posture solid during this exercise is quite difficult, as it is tempting to use your trunk muscles to help the rotation movement. However, you can train your core stability skills by keeping your navel pulled into your spine and relaxing your upper body so there are no additional movements apart from the arm raise and rotation.
In combination, the front and rear diagonal pull train almost every muscle in the shoulder joint and shoulder girdle. This makes them very useful exercises for any sport.
2. Medicine ball single arm overhead throw
This exercise develops the power of the latissimus and pectoral muscles in a functional manner for swimmers, involving a movement similar to the front crawl stroke. The aim of the throw is to improve the rate of force development in the shoulder by accelerating the arm hard to throw the ball. For this exercise you need a partner and 2-4kg ball. The small rubber ones are best as they can be held in one hand.
Because the ball is quite heavy for one hand you will not be able to throw it far or move the arm very fast. This makes it ideal for swimming as the pull stroke is not that fast.The training effect comes from your attempts to accelerate the arm movement as fast as you can, thereby improving the power of the pull.
Lie on your back on the floor, with knees bent slightly so your lower back is comfortable. Grasp the ball in one hand with your arm up and behind your head, slightly bent at the elbow. Vigorously pull the arm up and down across your body, throwing the ball over the opposite knee. Get your partner to return the ball, and perform sets of 8-12 repetitions with each arm in turn.
Do not lift your head or pull up from the stomach as you throw. Focus on producing the power from the shoulder and pulling across the body as you do in front crawl.
3. Swiss ball body pulls
This is a 'closed kinetic chain' movement, where the moving limbs remain in contact with a fixed object - in this case the hands with the floor. Such movements are thought to be particularly functional for sports performance, so offering greater training benefits.
This exercise is performed in a horizontal prone position, with the arms pulling down under the body, matching the position and action of a swimmer in the pool.
Position yourself face down, with your lower legs on the Swiss ball and your hands on the floor supporting your weight, body parallel to the floor. This is the equivalent of a press-up position with your feet up. Slowly roll the ball up your legs while your arms extend out in front of you until you achieve a stretched position, with a straight line through your arms, shoulders, back, hips and legs. At this point your body will make a shallow angle with the floor and the ball will be positioned on your thighs. Then, keeping this perfect alignment of your body, push down through your hands into the floor and pull yourself back to the press-up position. The ball should roll back down your legs as you do this. Perform sets of 8-12 repetitions.
The difficult part of the exercise is the pull back up. At this point you must use your stomach muscles to support your spine and focus on using a strong pull of the shoulder muscles to raise your body back to the parallel position. This exercise is not easy, but it is very beneficial for many sports, helping to develop core and shoulder strength.
Leg kick exercises: Hip extension and flexion kick
These exercises mimic the upwards and downwards phases of the swimmer's kick action, where the glutes and hamstrings extend and the hip flexors flex the leg at the hip. For these exercises you need a low pulley machine with an ankle strap attachment. Each leg is worked independently to increase the specificity for swimming, and the weights used should be relatively light so you can kick with good speed, as in the pool.
Hip extension.
Stand facing the low pulley machine, with the ankle strap attached to one leg. Lift this leg off the floor, taking up the slack of the cable, and place your balance solidly on the other leg. Hold onto the machine's frame with your hands to stabilise your upper body and check that your back is straight, with shoulders relaxed.
Pull the cable back dynamically by extending the leg backwards until you feel you need to lean forwards, then bring it back in a controlled manner to the start position, retaining good posture. Continue pulling the leg back, focusing on the gluteals and hamstrings to kick back powerfully.
Hip flexion.
Stand with your back to the low pulley machine, with the ankle strap attached to one leg. Lift this leg off the floor, taking up the slack of the cable, and place your balance solidly on the other leg. Use a stick to support yourself, and check that your back is straight with your shoulders relaxed.
Pull the cable dynamically by kicking the leg forwards. Pull the weight, using your hip flexor muscles at the top and front of the thigh, until your leg reaches an angle of about 30^ or you start to lean back. Smoothly return your leg to the start position, retaining good posture, and continue.
Perform sets of 10 reps at a fast speed and build up to sets of 20 or 30 for power endurance of this movement.
'Dive start and push-off turn' exercise: Barbell squat jumps
This exercise involves dynamic extension of the ankle, knee and hip joints and trains the calf, quadriceps and gluteal muscles to improve vertical jump performance. The vertical jump is mechanically related to the dive start and push-off turns involved in swimming: with the dive or turn, the ankle, knee and hip extension propels you forwards in the horizontal plane, while with the jump the leg extension propels you upwards in the vertical plane. Essentially, it's the same movement rotated by 90û!
The point of using a barbell to add weight to the squat is to help you to generate peak power. If you perform the jump squat with body weight only, the jump will be very fast and high. With the addition of a moderate weight (about 30-40% of the 1 repetition max weight for the squat exercise), the jump will not be as high or fast, but the muscular power required to leave the ground will be maximal. This is based on the knowledge that peak power is achieved when the force used is about one third of the maximum force for that movement. Again, your goal is to attempt to achieve the fastest extension of the legs to maximise power production and training benefit. If you use 30-40% of 1 RM weight, I recommend 3-5 sets of 5 repetitions.
Stand with the barbell across the back of your shoulders. Squat down, bending at the hips and knee, making sure the weight goes down through the back half of your foot. When you reach the half squat position, drive up dynamically, rapidly extending your legs so that you leave the floor briefly. Absorb the landing with soft knees, then go smoothly into the squat again. Continue for 5 repetitions.
The bottom line:
Strength and power training is essential for elite swimming performance.
To optimise the benefit of land-based training, you must select exercises with mechanical relevance to the swimming action, particularly those movements which propel the swimmer through the water, such as the arm pull and leg kick.
As the resistance in the water is different from the resistance provided by weight equipment on land, unless you have special hydraulic equipment, you must also focus on mimicking the speed and smooth movement of the swimming stroke when performing land-based exercises. Various exercises for the arm pull, leg kick, dive and turn movements are suggested, all with a good functional relationship to the swimming action.
While this is not a definitive or exhaustive selection of exercises, especially as it focuses solely on front crawl, it involves highly specific swimming movements in terms of mechanics, positions and speed. When you design strength programmes for swimming performance or any other sport, be sure to think about each exercise in terms of its relevance to performance.
Raphael Brandon
This article was taken from the Peak Performance newsletter, the number one source of sports science, training and research.
Lactate threshold VO2 (LTVO2) and economy to explain 99% of the variance in LT velocity
WHAT REALLY DETERMINES RUNNING PERFORMANCE?
What is the single most important factor that determines running performance?
Is it VO2 max? Not exactly. Is it genetics? Only partly. Is it Power Bars? Not likely. Mental toughness? Well, it helps. Reindeer milk? Bee pollen? Caterpillar fungus? Try again.
Dr. Edward Coyle, of the University of Texas at Austin, knows THE ANSWER. Dr. Coyle has been unravelling the mysteries of endurance performance for 20 years. In a series of 8 studies with runners, cyclists, and race-walkers, Coyle and his colleagues looked at everything from aerobic enzyme activity to gross mechanical efficiency, and how each of these factors contributes to racing speed. In a 1995 paper in Exercise and Sports Science Reviews, Dr. Coyle condensed the results of 2 decades of research into 3 words.
LACTATE THRESHOLD VELOCITY
Lactate threshold velocity? That's right, lactate threshold velocity (LT Velocity) is the single most important determinant of distance running success. In fact, a study with distance runners by Farrell et al. found that over 94% of the variation in racing speed was explained by differences in LT velocity, as compared to only 79% by variation in VO2 max.
So, what exactly is LT velocity?
LT velocity is simply how fast you can run at your lactate threshold. Your LT velocity is directly determined by just 2 factors: your lactate threshold VO2 and your running economy. A study using competitive cyclists found lactate threshold VO2 (LTVO2) and economy to explain 99% of the variance in LT velocity.
LTVO2 is the highest rate at which you can utilize oxygen before lactic acid starts to build-up in your muscles. LTVO2 also happens to be approximately the level of oxygen consumption that you can maintain during a marathon. (Oxygen consumption is measured as milliliters of oxygen consumed per kg of bodyweight per minute.)
To illustrate the advantage of a high LTVO2, say 2 runners have identical VO2 max values of 60 ml/kg/min, but one runner's LTVO2 occurs at 50 ml/kg/min, while the other runner's LTVO2 occurs at 40 ml/kg/min. If the 2 runners try to race the Boston Marathon at a speed that requires 48 ml/kg/min, runner #2 will build-up lactic acid and will have to slow down, and runner #1 will elbow him as she cruises past.
LTVO2 is not the answer by itself, however, because we don't all use the same amount of oxygen at a given speed. Just as some cars are more economical than others in their consumption of gasoline, some runners are more economical than others in their consumption of oxygen. A more economical runner consumes less oxygen to maintain a specific pace.
For example, say 2 runners with identical LTVO2 values of 50 ml/kg/min are racing the Cherry Blossom 10-miler at 6 minutes per mile pace. Sounds like they should both be working equally hard, right? Not necessarily. If runner #1 has an oxygen requirement of 48 ml/kg/min at 6 minute pace, and runner #2 requires 55 ml/kg/min, then runner #1 will be comfortably below LTVO2 and will be able to maintain the pace, but runner #2 will start to accumulate lactic acid and will have to slow down. In this case, runner #1 has a higher LT velocity because she uses her LTVO2 more economically!
What determines LTVO2?
LTVO2 is the highest rate at which you can use oxygen before lactic acid accumulates in your muscles and blood. In a study comparing elite versus good cyclists, Dr. Edward Coyle and colleagues found that 75% of the variation in LTVO2 is explained by VO2 max and aerobic enzyme activity. VO2 max sets the upper limit to your LTVO2, and aerobic enzyme activity and other factors inside the cells determine how close your LTVO2 is to that upper limit.
VO2 max is the maximal amount of oxygen that your cardiovascular system can transport, and which can then be utilized by the working muscles. VO2 max is determined by the amount of blood your heart can pump (the amount of blood pumped per heart-beat times the number of heart-beats), and the amount of oxygen that can be extracted from the blood and used by the muscles.
The good news is that you can increase your VO2 max substantially through training. The bad news for those of us who have been running a long time is that VO2 max tends to increase during the first few years of training but then plateaus.
Since VO2 max plateaus after several years of training, but lactate threshold continues to increase, there must be adaptations occurring inside the muscle cells that allow you to run at a higher percentage of VO2 max without building up lactic acid. The most important adaptation is an increase in aerobic enzyme activity.
Aerobic enzyme activity represents how much energy is being produced aerobically. Aerobic energy production takes place in the cells' mitochondria. Aerobic enzyme activity is determined by the number and size of mitochondria in your muscle cells. Endurance training increases both the number and size of mitochondria, which increases aerobic enzyme activity, which increases LTVO2, which increases LT Velocity, which means you can race faster!
What kinds of workouts will improve LTVO2?
The best way to improve your LTVO2 is to train at your LT Velocity. The problem is, how do you know your LT Velocity? You could go to an exercise physiology lab, and after measuring your lactate at various running speeds, the physiologist could tell you what pace coincides with your lactate threshold. Unfortunately, not many of us have access to a lab. Fortunately, you can estimate your LT Velocity fairly accurately using your race pace for 15K to the 1/2 marathon.
Let's say Alison just ran 70 minutes in the Cherry Blossom 10-Mile Race. To increase her LTVO2, Alison should allocate a portion of her training to running at about 7 minutes per mile. My favorite lactate threshold workout is the classic tempo run popularized by exercise physiologist and coach Jack Daniels in the 1980's. This workout consists of a continuous run of 20-40 minutes at LT Velocity. Alison would warm up, and then do a 3 to 6 mile tempo run at a pace of 7 minutes per mile, followed by a short cooldown jog.
Rather than doing a continuous tempo run, you can gain a similar benefit by breaking the tempo run into 2-4 segments, for a total of 20-40 minutes. For example, 3 repetitions of 10 minutes each at LT Velocity, with a 4-minute jog between reps, will also boost your LTVO2. Low-key races of 5K to 10K make a great substitute for tempo runs. A well-designed schedule would include a tempo run or race 2 out of every 3 weeks. This schedule will improve your lactate threshold, but also help prevent overtraining.
Now we know how to increase LTVO2. So far, we have solved half the puzzle. Next month we will look at what determines your running economy, and how to improve it. For now, get out on the roads and do some tempo runs. Your race times will go down as your lactate threshold VO2 goes up!
(This column originally appeared in Running Times Magazine.)
Tuesday, August 11, 2009
Is there an optimal training intensity for enhancing the maximal oxygen uptake of distance runners?:
Midgley AW, McNaughton LR, Wilkinson M.
Department of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Hull, Hull, England.
The maximal oxygen uptake (V-dotO(2max)) is considered an important physiological determinant of middle- and long-distance running performance. Little information exists in the scientific literature relating to the most effective training intensity for the enhancement of V-dotO(2max) in well trained distance runners.
Training intensities of 40-50% V-dotO(2max) can increase V-dotO(2max) substantially in untrained individuals. The minimum training intensity that elicits the enhancement of V-dotO(2max) is highly dependent on the initial V-dotO(2max), however, and well trained distance runners probably need to train at relative high percentages of V-dotO(2max) to elicit further increments.
Some authors have suggested that training at 70-80% V-dotO(2max) is optimal. Many studies have investigated the maximum amount of time runners can maintain 95-100% V-dotO(2max) with the assertion that this intensity is optimal in enhancing V-dotO(2max).
Presently, there have been no well controlled training studies to support this premise.
Myocardial morphological changes that increase maximal stroke volume, increased capillarisation of skeletal muscle, increased myoglobin concentration, and increased oxidative capacity of type II skeletal muscle fibres are adaptations associated with the enhancement of V-dotO(2max).
The strength of stimuli that elicit adaptation is exercise intensity dependent up to V-dotO(2max), indicating that training at or near V-dotO(2max) may be the most effective intensity to enhance V-dotO(2max) in well trained distance runners.
Lower training intensities may induce similar adaptation because the physiological stress can be imposed for longer periods. This is probably only true for moderately trained runners, however, because all cardiorespiratory adaptations elicited by submaximal training have probably already been elicited in distance runners competing at a relatively high level.
Well trained distance runners have been reported to reach a plateau in V-dotO(2max) enhancement; however, many studies have demonstrated that the V-dotO(2max) of well trained runners can be enhanced when training protocols known to elicit 95-100% V-dotO(2max) are included in their training programmes.
This supports the premise that high-intensity training may be effective or even necessary for well trained distance runners to enhance V-dotO(2max).
However, the efficacy of optimised protocols for enhancing V-dotO(2max) needs to be established with well controlled studies in which they are compared with protocols involving other training intensities typically used by distance runners to enhance V-dotO(2max).
1: Sports Med. 2006;36(2):117-32.
The scientific basis for high-intensity interval training: optimising training programmes and maximising performance in highly trained endurance athle
Laursen PB, Jenkins DG.
School of Human Movement Studies, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia. plaursen@hms.uq.edu.au
While the physiological adaptations that occur following endurance training in previously sedentary and recreationally active individuals are relatively well understood, the adaptations to training in already highly trained endurance athletes remain unclear.
While significant improvements in endurance performance and corresponding physiological markers are evident following submaximal endurance training in sedentary and recreationally active groups, an additional increase in submaximal training (i.e. volume) in highly trained individuals does not appear to further enhance either endurance performance or associated physiological variables [e.g. peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak), oxidative enzyme activity].
It seems that, for athletes who are already trained, improvements in endurance performance can be achieved only through high-intensity interval training (HIT).
The limited research which has examined changes in muscle enzyme activity in highly trained athletes, following HIT, has revealed no change in oxidative or glycolytic enzyme activity, despite significant improvements in endurance performance (p < 0.05).
Instead, an increase in skeletal muscle buffering capacity may be one mechanism responsible for an improvement in endurance performance.
Changes in plasma volume, stroke volume, as well as muscle cation pumps, myoglobin, capillary density and fibre type characteristics have yet to be investigated in response to HIT with the highly trained athlete. Information relating to HIT programme optimisation in endurance athletes is also very sparse.
Preliminary work using the velocity at which VO2max is achieved (V(max)) as the interval intensity, and fractions (50 to 75%) of the time to exhaustion at V(max) (T(max)) as the interval duration has been successful in eliciting improvements in performance in long-distance runners.
However, V(max) and T(max) have not been used with cyclists. Instead, HIT programme optimisation research in cyclists has revealed that repeated supramaximal sprinting may be equally effective as more traditional HIT programmes for eliciting improvements in endurance performance.
Further examination of the biochemical and physiological adaptations which accompany different HIT programmes, as well as investigation into the optimal HIT programme for eliciting performance enhancements in highly trained athletes is required.
1: Sports Med. 2002;32(1):53-73.
Impact of resistance training on endurance performance. A new form of cross-training?
In accordance with the principles of training specificity, resistance and endurance training induce distinct muscular adaptations.
Endurance training, for example, decreases the activity of the glycolytic enzymes, but increases intramuscular substrate stores, oxidative enzyme activities, and capillary, as well as mitochondrial, density.
In contrast, resistance or strength training reduces mitochondrial density, while marginally impacting capillary density, metabolic enzyme activities and intramuscular substrate stores (except muscle glycogen).
The training modalities do induce one common muscular adaptation: they transform type IIb myofibres into IIa myofibres. This transformation is coupled with opposite changes in fibre size (resistance training increases, and endurance training decreases, fibre size), and, in general, myofibre contractile properties.
As a result of these distinct muscular adaptations, endurance training facilitates aerobic processes, whereas resistance training increases muscular strength and anaerobic power.
Exercise performance data do not fit this paradigm, however, as they indicate that resistance training or the addition of resistance training to an ongoing endurance exercise regimen, including running or cycling, increases both short and long term endurance capacity in sedentary and trained individuals.
Resistance training also appears to improve lactate threshold in untrained individuals during cycling. These improvements may be linked to the capacity of resistance training to alter myofibre size and contractile properties, adaptations that may increase muscular force production.
In contrast to running and cycling, traditional dry land resistance training or combined swim and resistance training does not appear to enhance swimming performance in untrained individuals or competitive swimmers, despite substantially increasing upper body strength.
Combined swim and swim-specific 'in-water' resistance training programmes, however, increase a competitive swimmer's velocity over distances up to 200 m.
Traditional resistance training may be a valuable adjunct to the exercise programmes followed by endurance runners or cyclists, but not swimmers; these latter athletes need more specific forms of resistance training to realise performance improvement.
1: Sports Med. 1998 Mar;25(3):191-200.
Training techniques to improve endurance exercise performances.
Kubukeli ZN, Noakes TD, Dennis SC.
Medical Research Council/University of Cape Town Research Unit on Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, Sports Science Institute of South Africa, Newlands, Cape Town, South Africa. zuko@worldonline.co.za
In previously untrained individuals, endurance training improves peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak), increases capillary density of working muscle, raises blood volume and decreases heart rate during exercise at the same absolute intensity.
In contrast, sprint training has a greater effect on muscle glyco(geno)lytic capacity than on muscle mitochondrial content. Sprint training invariably raises the activity of one or more of the muscle glyco(geno)lytic or related enzymes and enhances sarcolemmal lactate transport capacity.
Some groups have also reported that sprint training transforms muscle fibre types, but these data are conflicting and not supported by any consistent alteration in sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ ATPase activity or muscle physicochemical H+ buffering capacity.
While the adaptations to training have been studied extensively in previously sedentary individuals, far less is known about the responses to high-intensity interval training (HIT) in already highly trained athletes.
Only one group has systematically studied the reported benefits of HIT before competition. They found that >or=6 HIT sessions, was sufficient to maximally increase peak work rate (W(peak)) values and simulated 40 km time-trial (TT(40)) speeds of competitive cyclists by 4 to 5% and 3.0 to 3.5%, respectively.
Maximum 3.0 to 3.5% improvements in TT(40) cycle rides at 75 to 80% of W(peak) after HIT consisting of 4- to 5-minute rides at 80 to 85% of W(peak) supported the idea that athletes should train for competition at exercise intensities specific to their event.
The optimum reduction or 'taper' in intense training to recover from exhaustive exercise before a competition is poorly understood. Most studies have shown that 20 to 80% single-step reductions in training volume over 1 to 4 weeks have little effect on exercise performance, and that it is more important to maintain training intensity than training volume.
Progressive 30 to 75% reductions in pool training volume over 2 to 4 weeks have been shown to improve swimming performances by 2 to 3%. Equally rapid exponential tapers improved 5 km running times by up to 6%.
We found that a 50% single-step reduction in HIT at 70% of W(peak) produced peak approximately 6% improvements in simulated 100 km time-trial performances after 2 weeks.
It is possible that the optimum taper depends on the intensity of the athletes' preceding training and their need to recover from exhaustive exercise to compete. How the optimum duration of a taper is influenced by preceding training intensity and percentage reduction in training volume warrants investigation.
1: Sports Med. 2002;32(8):489-509.
Monday, August 10, 2009
Physiological changes associated with the pre-event taper in athletes.
Mujika I, Padilla S, Pyne D, Busso T.
Department of Research and Development, Medical Services, Athletic Club of Bilbao, Basque Country, Spain. imujika@grn.es
Some of the physiological changes associated with the taper and their relationship with athletic performance are now known.
Since the 1980s a number of studies have examined various physiological responses associated with the cardiorespiratory, metabolic, hormonal, neuromuscular and immunological systems during the pre-event taper across a number of sports.
Changes in the cardiorespiratory system may include an increase in maximal oxygen uptake, but this is not a necessary prerequisite for taper-induced gains in performance.
Oxygen uptake at a given submaximal exercise intensity can decrease during the taper, but this response is more likely to occur in less-skilled athletes.
Resting, maximal and submaximal heart rates do not change, unless athletes show clear signs of overreaching before the taper.
Blood pressure, cardiac dimensions and ventilatory function are generally stable, but submaximal ventilation may decrease.
Possible haematological changes include increased blood and red cell volume, haemoglobin, haematocrit, reticulocytes and haptoglobin, and decreased red cell distribution width. These changes in the taper suggest a positive balance between haemolysis and erythropoiesis, likely to contribute to performance gains.
Metabolic changes during the taper include: a reduced daily energy expenditure; slightly reduced or stable respiratory exchange ratio; increased peak blood lactate concentration; and decreased or unchanged blood lactate at submaximal intensities.
Blood ammonia concentrations show inconsistent trends, muscle glycogen concentration increases progressively and calcium retention mechanisms seem to be triggered during the taper.
Reduced blood creatine kinase concentrations suggest recovery from training stress and muscle damage, but other biochemical markers of training stress and performance capacity are largely unaffected by the taper.
Hormonal markers such as testosterone, cortisol, testosterone : cortisol ratio, 24-hour urinary cortisol : cortisone ratio, plasma and urinary catecholamines, growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor-1 are sometimes affected and changes can correlate with changes in an athlete's performance capacity.
From a neuromuscular perspective, the taper usually results in markedly increased muscular strength and power, often associated with performance gains at the muscular and whole body level. Oxidative enzyme activities can increase, along with positive changes in single muscle fibre size, metabolic properties and contractile properties.
Limited research on the influence of the taper on athletes' immune status indicates that small changes in immune cells, immunoglobulins and cytokines are unlikely to compromise overall immunological protection.
The pre-event taper may also be characterised by psychological changes in the athlete, including a reduction in total mood disturbance and somatic complaints, improved somatic relaxation and self-assessed physical conditioning scores, reduced perception of effort and improved quality of sleep. These changes are often associated with improved post-taper performances.
Mathematical models indicate that the physiological changes associated with the taper are the result of a restoration of previously impaired physiological capacities (fatigue and adaptation model), and the capacity to tolerate training and respond effectively to training undertaken during the taper (variable dose-response model).
Finally, it is important to note that some or all of the described physiological and psychological changes associated with the taper occur simultaneously, which underpins the integrative nature of relationships between these changes and performance enhancement.
1: Sports Med. 2004;34(13):891-927.
Department of Research and Development, Medical Services, Athletic Club of Bilbao, Basque Country, Spain. imujika@grn.es
Some of the physiological changes associated with the taper and their relationship with athletic performance are now known.
Since the 1980s a number of studies have examined various physiological responses associated with the cardiorespiratory, metabolic, hormonal, neuromuscular and immunological systems during the pre-event taper across a number of sports.
Changes in the cardiorespiratory system may include an increase in maximal oxygen uptake, but this is not a necessary prerequisite for taper-induced gains in performance.
Oxygen uptake at a given submaximal exercise intensity can decrease during the taper, but this response is more likely to occur in less-skilled athletes.
Resting, maximal and submaximal heart rates do not change, unless athletes show clear signs of overreaching before the taper.
Blood pressure, cardiac dimensions and ventilatory function are generally stable, but submaximal ventilation may decrease.
Possible haematological changes include increased blood and red cell volume, haemoglobin, haematocrit, reticulocytes and haptoglobin, and decreased red cell distribution width. These changes in the taper suggest a positive balance between haemolysis and erythropoiesis, likely to contribute to performance gains.
Metabolic changes during the taper include: a reduced daily energy expenditure; slightly reduced or stable respiratory exchange ratio; increased peak blood lactate concentration; and decreased or unchanged blood lactate at submaximal intensities.
Blood ammonia concentrations show inconsistent trends, muscle glycogen concentration increases progressively and calcium retention mechanisms seem to be triggered during the taper.
Reduced blood creatine kinase concentrations suggest recovery from training stress and muscle damage, but other biochemical markers of training stress and performance capacity are largely unaffected by the taper.
Hormonal markers such as testosterone, cortisol, testosterone : cortisol ratio, 24-hour urinary cortisol : cortisone ratio, plasma and urinary catecholamines, growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor-1 are sometimes affected and changes can correlate with changes in an athlete's performance capacity.
From a neuromuscular perspective, the taper usually results in markedly increased muscular strength and power, often associated with performance gains at the muscular and whole body level. Oxidative enzyme activities can increase, along with positive changes in single muscle fibre size, metabolic properties and contractile properties.
Limited research on the influence of the taper on athletes' immune status indicates that small changes in immune cells, immunoglobulins and cytokines are unlikely to compromise overall immunological protection.
The pre-event taper may also be characterised by psychological changes in the athlete, including a reduction in total mood disturbance and somatic complaints, improved somatic relaxation and self-assessed physical conditioning scores, reduced perception of effort and improved quality of sleep. These changes are often associated with improved post-taper performances.
Mathematical models indicate that the physiological changes associated with the taper are the result of a restoration of previously impaired physiological capacities (fatigue and adaptation model), and the capacity to tolerate training and respond effectively to training undertaken during the taper (variable dose-response model).
Finally, it is important to note that some or all of the described physiological and psychological changes associated with the taper occur simultaneously, which underpins the integrative nature of relationships between these changes and performance enhancement.
1: Sports Med. 2004;34(13):891-927.
Wednesday, June 04, 2008
'Good' Bacteria May Ease Hay Fever
'Good' Bacteria May Ease Hay Fever
Study Shows Probiotics Can Change Immune Response to Grass Pollen
Reviewed by Louise Chang, MD
June 4, 2008 -- If springtime's splendor leaves you sniffling, "good" bacteria may one day provide relief. New research suggests probiotics can alter the body's immune response to grass pollen -- a common cause of seasonal allergic rhinitis, or hay fever.
The landmark study published in Clinical and Experimental Allergy suggests that in the future, "good" bacteria, or probiotics, may potentially offer a treatment option to the estimated 35.9 million people in the U.S. who have seasonal hay fever.
For the current study, researchers with the Institute of Food Researchers randomly assigned 10 volunteers to drink a daily glass of regular milk or milk containing the probiotic Lactobacillus casei Shirota. Lactobacillus casei has been widely studied for its health benefits. The volunteers drank the milk each day and were followed for five months.
The research team took blood samples from each volunteer before, during, and after grass pollen season, checking for antibody levels of immunoglobulin E (IgE). If you have hay fever or other allergies, your immune system produces IgE in response to exposure to pollen. IgE is a key player in allergic reactions.
The blood tests revealed similar levels of IgE between both groups of volunteers at the start of the study. However, those who drank the probiotic drink had significantly lower levels of IgE specific for grass pollens and other allergy-related immune substances at peak season and afterward.
"The probiotic strain we tested changed the way the body's immune cells respond to grass pollen, restoring a more balanced immune response," Kamal Ivory of the division of Gastrointestinal Biology and Health at the Institute of Food Research says in a news release.
"This was a pilot study based on small numbers of patients, but we were fascinated to discover a response," research leader Claudio Nicoletti says. "The probiotic significantly reduced the production of molecules associated with allergy."
However, the researchers admit further studies are needed to determine if probiotic supplementation results in fewer hay fever symptoms. Phase II of the study will address that question.
© 2008 WebMD, LLC. All rights reserved.
Aerobic High-Intensity Intervals Improve VO2max More Than Moderate Training
Aerobic High-Intensity Intervals Improve VO2max More Than Moderate Training.
Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 39(4):665-671, April 2007.
JAN HELGERUD; KJETILL HØYDAL; EIVIND WANG; TRINE KARLSEN; PÅLR BERG; MARIUS BJERKAAS; THOMAS SIMONSEN; CECILIES HELGESEN; NINAL HJORTH; RAGNHILD BACH; JAN HOFF
Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 39(4):665-671, April 2007.
JAN HELGERUD; KJETILL HØYDAL; EIVIND WANG; TRINE KARLSEN; PÅLR BERG; MARIUS BJERKAAS; THOMAS SIMONSEN; CECILIES HELGESEN; NINAL HJORTH; RAGNHILD BACH; JAN HOFF
Abstract:
Purpose:
The present study compared the effects of aerobic endurance training at different intensities and with different methods matched for total work and frequency. Responses in maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), stroke volume of the heart (SV), blood volume, lactate threshold (LT), and running economy (CR) were examined.
Methods:
Forty healthy, nonsmoking, moderately trained male subjects were randomly assigned to one of four groups:
1) long slow distance (70% maximal heart rate; HRmax);
2) lactate threshold (85% HRmax);
3) 15/15 interval running (15 s of running at 90-95% HRmax followed by 15 s of active resting at 70% HRmax);
4) 4 x 4 min of interval running (4 min of running at 90-95% HRmax followed by 3 min of active resting at 70%HRmax).
All four training protocols resulted in similar total oxygen consumption and were performed 3 dwk-1 for 8 wk.
Results:
High-intensity aerobic interval training resulted in significantly increased VO2max compared with long slow distance and lactate-threshold training intensities (P <>
The percentage increases for the 15/15 and 4 x 4 min groups were 5.5 and 7.2%, respectively, reflecting increases in VO2max from 60.5 to 64.4 mLkg-1min-1 and 55.5 to 60.4 mLkg-1min-1.
SV increased significantly by approximately 10% after interval training (P < 0.05).
Conclusions:
High-aerobic intensity endurance interval training is significantly more effective than performing the same total work at either lactate threshold or at 70% HRmax, in improving VO2max. The changes in VO2max correspond with changes in SV, indicating a close link between the two.
Purpose:
The present study compared the effects of aerobic endurance training at different intensities and with different methods matched for total work and frequency. Responses in maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), stroke volume of the heart (SV), blood volume, lactate threshold (LT), and running economy (CR) were examined.
Methods:
Forty healthy, nonsmoking, moderately trained male subjects were randomly assigned to one of four groups:
1) long slow distance (70% maximal heart rate; HRmax);
2) lactate threshold (85% HRmax);
3) 15/15 interval running (15 s of running at 90-95% HRmax followed by 15 s of active resting at 70% HRmax);
4) 4 x 4 min of interval running (4 min of running at 90-95% HRmax followed by 3 min of active resting at 70%HRmax).
All four training protocols resulted in similar total oxygen consumption and were performed 3 dwk-1 for 8 wk.
Results:
High-intensity aerobic interval training resulted in significantly increased VO2max compared with long slow distance and lactate-threshold training intensities (P <>
The percentage increases for the 15/15 and 4 x 4 min groups were 5.5 and 7.2%, respectively, reflecting increases in VO2max from 60.5 to 64.4 mLkg-1min-1 and 55.5 to 60.4 mLkg-1min-1.
SV increased significantly by approximately 10% after interval training (P < 0.05).
Conclusions:
High-aerobic intensity endurance interval training is significantly more effective than performing the same total work at either lactate threshold or at 70% HRmax, in improving VO2max. The changes in VO2max correspond with changes in SV, indicating a close link between the two.
(C) 2007 The American College of Sports Medicine
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